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Ancient Chinese painting depicting three men in traditional robes and hats, possibly referencing the Debate on Salt and Iron, standing together against a textured background.

A Record of the Debate on Salt
and Iron | Asia for Educators

This translated excerpt from A Record of the Debate on Salt and Iron presents arguments made during a government debate on fiscal policy under the Western Han dynasty. Held in 81 BCE in the court of Emperor Zhao, the debate featured state officials—led by Lord Grand Secretary Sang Hongyang—and Confucian scholars who challenged the economic policies of Emperor Wu, especially the government monopolies on salt and iron. This primary source offers insight into early Chinese governance, Confucian political thought, and economic philosophy.

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A traditional painting of an elderly man with a long beard, wearing a blue head covering and robes, holding a small object—a serene portrait reminiscent of figures found in the Analects of Confucius.

The Analects of Confucius 論語 | Translated by A. Charles Muller

This digital edition of The Analects, translated by A. Charles Muller, provides open-access English translations of one of the most foundational texts in East Asian thought. The Analects is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius and his disciples, offering insights into ethics, government, education, and proper conduct that have shaped Chinese and East Asian societies for centuries. Translator A. Charles Muller is Director of the Institute of Buddhist Culture at Musashino University in Tokyo and formerly taught at the University of Tokyo. His work focuses on East Asian philosophy, Buddhist studies, and digital humanities.

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